One would imagine that the current state of politics in India, that is, the rapid movement towards right-wing nationalism and majoritarianism is a recent phenomenon or a beginning of some sort. However, a closer look at history will tell us that it is rather the culmination of an initiation of the consolidation of a Hindu identity that began centuries ago. Divya Cherian’s Merchants of Virtue: Hindus, Muslims, and Untouchables in Eighteenth-Century South Asia (published by University of California Press in 2023) offers exactly that closer look at history.

Set in the kingdom of 18th-century Marwar, Cherian’s study traces the rise of the financial and social capital of the mercantile class consisting of the Vaishyas and the Jains. She begins by saying, “In the South Asian popular imagination today, Marwar is most closely identified with the Marwari, the astute businessman and moneylender found in parts of India far removed from his homeland in the dusty towns and villages on the eastern edge of the Thar Desert,” and goes on to historically deconstruct this popular imagination one by one. The two social groups—Vaishyas and Jains, along with of course, the already dominant groups of the Brahmins and the Rajputs imagined and formulated themselves as a group called ‘Hindu’ and such a construction was possible only by defining themselves against the ‘non-Hindu’ or the ‘other’ which consisted of the Muslims but primarily of the “untouchables,” the lowest in the caste order. This imagination and formulation were also catalysed by the role that this dominant ‘Hindu’ group gave to itself– the role of the saviour of all, especially non-human, life. In doing so, animal slaughter (associated with both Muslims and the caste groups considered low) became a heavily punishable offence, vegetarianism was encouraged and glorified, and consumption of meat or any kind of harm to animals was looked down upon severely and also returned by equal if not more harm to those found guilty of it. However, Cherian emphasises the fact that the punishment for animal slaughter was much more severe in the case where the offender was Muslim or “untouchable,” as opposed to when it was somebody from the consolidated ‘Hindu’ group. As one of the primary source materials, Cherian investigates the court manuscripts, especially the ones that record the various complaints by the subjects of the crown and the punishment offered as a result.

Merchants of Virtue: Hindus, Muslims, and Untouchables in Eighteenth-Century South Asia is divided into two parts preceded by an Introduction and a chapter named ‘Power’ that lays the historical and theoretical groundwork structure for the rest of the book. Part 1 discusses the factors that the Rathor state used to express distinction and difference from those deemed lowly in caste terms. It consists of three chapters – Purity, Hierarchy, and Discipline respectively. While chapter two discusses the creation of the boundary that categorizes the ‘self’ and the ‘other’, the third chapter maps and traces the rise of the power and position of the Vaishnavas. The fourth chapter, which is the most interesting and refreshing aspect of the book, brings forth the obsession over the ethic of non-harm and protection of non-human life that lead to extreme administrative surveillance, and further marginalisation of the already marginalised communities such as the thoris and bavris — communities of armed landless vagrants residing in the outskirts of the city and depending massively on animal hunting for survival–, and the Muslims. Now Cherian mentions that not all Muslims were subjugated and treated unfairly on charges of animal slaughter, but fails to make known and clear the specific category of Muslims that faced oppression. Cherian also delves into how extreme punishments became a tool for some people to exploit and falsely report their enemies for animal slaughter. An interesting aspect that she brings forth is also how the land was sold strictly on caste terms as it was unimaginable to have a Muslim or a person considered lowly as a neighbor.

The second part of the book consists of three chapters namely – Nonharm, Austerity, and Chastity. In all these three chapters, Cherian comments on the sociological construction of a consolidated caste identity and the role that the state and the mercantile capital played in it. The chapter on chastity discusses the very central woman question, the role that women played in this consolidation, and the place that they were given in this oppressively ethical society. At length, Cherian discusses the case of Rajput queen Rani Padmini and her association with the collective Hindu imagination. Furthermore, questions of what was considered a legitimate sexual relationship, the prohibition of abortion, and the expectation of chaste widowhood are also explored along with the pertinent association of a social community’s honor with the sexuality of the women of the group.

The epilogue of Cherian’s book is, I believe, where one can find the most historically fascinating answers to the pressing concerns of the present. For example, Cherian explores how the Marwaris and the Marwari diaspora in North India are responsible for the creation of the Hindi language and literature by consciously removing Persian words from daily vocabulary. Cherian also sheds light on the creation of the narrative of Hindu women being in constant danger from the ‘other’’ and the seeds of envisioning a Hindu nation. Finally, she cites ethnographic studies from the Gujarat anti-Muslim pogrom of 2002 and discusses how this narrative of disgust from the ‘other’ (of which Muslims form a major part) was being used as an explanation and excuse for the widespread bloodshed.

As we step into the supposedly “new India” of the 21st century, Cherian’s comprehensive and almost exhaustive study presents a much-needed window into certain pertinent and often overlooked aspects of the past. It offers facts and documentation, as well as a perspective, and will be a suitable and engaging read for not just scholars of history but for all those curious about the past and the present.

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Alfisha Sabri has recently graduated with a Master’s degree in English from Jamia Millia Islamia (JMI), New Delhi.