Introduction

The relationship between food and caste in India is deeply intertwined, reflecting the nation’s complex social hierarchies and cultural practices. Food, as a basic human necessity, is not only a source of sustenance but also a medium through which social norms and power dynamics are reinforced and challenged. Caste-based distinctions in food practices illustrate how notions of purity and pollution are deeply embedded in Indian society. This article explores how food practices intersect with caste, highlighting the perpetuation of social inequalities and the struggles for dignity and equality among marginalised groups.

The Stigma of Smell: Culinary Contamination and Caste

Caste contamination is a pervasive issue (Synnott, 1991), and it manifests in everyday practices, particularly in food and consumption. Upper caste norms dictate what is considered nutritious and balanced, often labelling the culinary practices of lower castes and communities outside the caste system as unclean. This classification of food as clean or dirty perpetuates a caste-based social order (Appadurai, 1981). The sense of smell plays a crucial role in numerous culinary practices in various urban areas in India. Masala and fermented food items possess powerful aromas. However, the conflicts around the preparation and consumption of “smelly” food are often attributed to minority communities such as migrants from Northeast India (Kikon, 2021). This implies that categorising odorous food as unclean is determined by a prevailing system of culinary hierarchy and preference. This association reinforces the dominant caste ideology that deems such foods as dirty, based on a moral and cosmological framework rooted in the Hindu caste system (Appadurai, 1981). This perception leads to conflicts in spaces like university hostels and exclusive housing complexes for vegetarians and upper caste Hindus (Debbarma, 2016; Holwitt, 2017). Such conflicts often result in the marginalisation and exclusion of minority groups, who are forced to alter their cooking and eating habits to conform to the dominant caste norms.

Culinary Marginalisation: Food as a Tool of Humiliation

Food practices not only reflect caste-based discrimination but also contribute to the humiliation and violence experienced by marginalised communities. These experiences are collective, reinforcing social hierarchies through everyday interactions. As Guru (2019) notes, food plays a

crucial role in shaping cultural identities and asserting superiority. Recognising the food cultures of Dalit and tribal communities has become a central aspect of social justice activism in India. For Dalits, this struggle is about reclaiming personal and political dignity and challenging the systemic discrimination they face (Rawat and Satyanarayana, 2016).

Brahmanical Dominance: Dictating Purity Through Diet

A crucial aspect of Brahmanical authority lies in its ability to regulate and establish the criteria for categorising food as either pure or impure. In his analysis of Dalit food culture in India, Deepak (2018) emphasises the manner in which upper caste households preserve specific dietary restrictions and preferences as a means of upholding their cultural and traditional practices, while simultaneously suppressing the caste origins of their dietary culture. Underneath the surface and visual appeal of Indian cuisine, the act of making and consuming food is deeply influenced by caste ideology (Dhillon, 2014). The Brahmanical food system is established as a societal and cultural standard that aligns with the social, emotional, and spiritual realm of the nation. However, this national dietary consciousness is exclusively for the welfare of the upper castes (Appadurai, 1981). This system contributes to the everyday marginalisation of Dalits, who are often forced to consume leftovers, as vividly depicted in Valmiki’s (2003) autobiographical work, “Jhoothan” (leftover). This practice highlights the deep-seated humiliation and violence faced by Dalits in their struggle for survival and dignity. He shows us how food and consumption reveal collective hunger and humiliation. The torment and violence of Dalits being compelled to consume the leftovers of the upper caste Hindus is a significant component of caste history in India.

Dominance of Upper Caste Food Culture

Despite the rich diversity of Indian cuisine, upper caste food culture dominates and dictates dietary practices. Social exclusions based on caste sensibilities shape civic sensibilities, social relations, and housing choices in urban India. Housing complexes exclusively for upper caste vegetarians exemplify this exclusionary practice (Holwitt, 2017). Food is inherently political, as evidenced by the Bharatiya Janata Party’s (BJP) 1996 election manifesto to ban beef, which Illaiah (1996) argues stems from a Brahmanical Hindutva consciousness. This drive to homogenise Hindu culture includes the imposition of dietary prohibitions, such as banning beef, on other castes and religious communities. While upper castes define and practice purity and sacredness, lower castes are tasked with maintaining this purity through their labour, such as disposing of garbage and carcasses. This division of labour reinforces the caste hierarchy and normalises categories of uncleanliness and filth associated with Dalits.

Sacred Servings: Religious Festivals and Communal Politics

Religious practices and festivals in India highlight the interplay of food and caste vividly. These events reveal deeply ingrained cultural norms where women play significant roles in preparing and serving food, while caste dictates who can partake in certain foods. The emphasis on cleanliness and hygiene is particularly significant in relation to food culture from Northeast India. Recent concerns about clean and unclean meat have led to new penalties, such as the 2020 dog meat ban in Nagaland, which sparked a national debate about what constitutes clean and safe food (Kamei, 2020). This ban was seen as a civic concern, reinforcing majoritarian food culture.

The Kanwar Yatra exemplifies how religious festivals become sites of caste and communal politics through food practices. Once a modest pilgrimage, it now extends beyond devotion to impose dietary norms that privilege “satvik” food and stigmatise meat consumption. Demands to shut down meat shops along the route, primarily targeting Muslim vendors, illustrate how purity concerns are weaponised to marginalise communities and police livelihoods. In some towns, diktats requiring disclosure of shop ownership reinforced communal hierarchies. What is presented as devotion thus becomes a mechanism of exclusion, where food politics institutionalises Hindu dominance in public spaces.

Culinary Conflicts: Food as a Site of Resistance

Conflicts over food practices highlight the political nature of dietary choices (Niyogi, 2019). For example, violence erupted in 2012 after Dalit students organised a beef festival in Hyderabad to celebrate their food culture and protest Brahmanical dominance (Rao, 2012). In 2017, complaints about a foul smell from the kitchen of two Nagaland Armed Police constables led to their interrogation, reflecting the anxiety over caste reactions to “dirty” food. The distinction between vegetarians as upper caste Hindus and non-vegetarians as lower caste/Muslim/Christian communities is overly simplistic, but highlights how food-based exclusion and caste discrimination are deeply intertwined. Vegetarianism, a dominant marker for upper caste housing associations, is often masked in the language of taste and aesthetics (Holwitt, 2017). Real estate agents in Mumbai, for example, sell gated apartments to vegetarian upper caste communities, ensuring their clients are not exposed to the smell of non-vegetarian food (ibid). Food odour, therefore, becomes a marker of caste purity, further entrenching racist and casteist practices.

Conclusion

The interplay of food and caste in India reveals a complex web of social hierarchies and discrimination. From labelling lower caste food as dirty to the power dynamics in urban households and religious practices, food practices are deeply political and socially significant. Understanding these intersections is crucial for addressing social justice and equality in India. Efforts to combat caste discrimination must recognise the central role of food in maintaining and challenging social hierarchies. By acknowledging and addressing these intertwined issues, hopefully, our society can move toward greater inclusivity and equity.

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Sahil Singh is an India Fellow working with Aajeevika Bureau in Jodhpur. His work revolves around the lives of migrant workers in Jodhpur’s industrial areas.